Lars Erlend Leganger

When is an AI system high-risk?

Table of references

s. 44–50pp. 44–50 · PDF 48–54

Literature

  • Couneson, Guillaume. 2024. “Article 6: Classification Rules for High-Risk AI Systems.” In Pehlivan, Forgó, and Valcke (eds) (2024), 193–218.
  • Crootof, Rebecca, Margot E. Kaminski, and W. Nicholson Price II. 2023. “Humans in the Loop.” Vanderbilt Law Review 76 (2): 429–510. https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/vlr/vol76/iss2/2.
  • Ebers, Martin. 2024. “Truly Risk-Based Regulation of Artificial Intelligence: How to Implement the EU's AI Act.” European Journal of Risk Regulation 16 (2): 684–703. doi:10.1017/err.2024.78.
  • Enarsson, Therese, Lena Enqvist, and Markus Naarttijärvi. 2022. “Approaching the Human in the Loop: Legal Perspectives on Hybrid Human/Algorithmic Decision-Making in Three Contexts.” Information & Communications Technology Law 31 (1): 123–153. doi:10.1080/13600834.2021.1958860
  • Floridi, Luciano. 2011. The Philosophy of Information. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232383.001.0001
  • Gallagher, Daniel. 2024. “Article 26: Obligations of Deployers of High-Risk AI Systems.” In Pehlivan, Forgó, and Valcke (eds) (2024), 537–552.
  • Gasiola, Gustavo Gil. 2025. “Rebuilding the Pyramid: The AI Act's Risk-Based Approach Using a Binary Decision Diagram.” Computer Law & Security Review 58: 106189. doi:10.1016/j.clsr.2025.106189.
  • Granmar, C.G. 2024. “AI-Based Decision-Making and the Human Oversight Requirement Under the AI Act.” In: Gill-Pedro, E. and A. Moberg (eds). YSEC Yearbook of So-cio-Economic Constitutions, vol 2023. Springer, Cham. doi:10.1007/16495_2024_68
  • Hanif, Hilmy, Jorge Constantino, Marie-Therese Sekwenz, Michel van Eeten, Jolien Ubacht, Ben Wagner, and Yury Zhauniarovich. 2024. “Navigating the EU AI Act Maze Using a Decision-Tree Approach.” ACM Journal on Responsible Computing 1 (3): 1–16. doi:10.1145/3677174
  • Laux, Johann, and Hannah Ruschemeier. 2025. “Automation Bias in the AI Act: On the Legal Implications of Attempting to De-Bias Human Oversight of AI.” European Journal of Risk Regulation 16 (4): 1519–1534. doi:10.1017/err.2025.10033
  • Lazcoz, Guillermo, and Paul de Hert. 2023. “Humans in the GDPR and AIA Governance of Automated and Algorithmic Systems: Essential Pre-Requisites Against Abdicating Responsibilities.” Computer Law & Security Review 50: 105833. doi:10.1016/j.clsr.2023.105833
  • Lenaerts, Koen, and José A. Gutiérrez-Fons. 2013. “To Say What the Law of the EU Is: Methods of Interpretation and the European Court of Justice.” EUI AEL Distinguished Lectures of the Academy 2013/09. Florence: European University Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/28339
  • Levitina, Anna. 2024. “Humans in Automated Decision-Making Under the GDPR and AI Act.” Revista CIDOB d'Afers Internacionals 138: 121–143. doi:10.24241/rcai.2024.138.3.121/ English text: https://www.cidob.org/en/publications/humans-automated-decision-making-under-gdpr-and-ai-act
  • Mahler, Tobias. 2022. “Between Risk Management and Proportionality: The Risk-Based Approach in the EU's Artificial Intelligence Act Proposal.” In The Swedish Law and Informatics Research Institute, 247–270. doi:10.53292/208f5901.38a67238. Also available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4001444
  • Mahler, Tobias, and Sebastian Felix Schwemer. 2024. “Article 80: Procedure for Dealing with AI Systems Classified by the Provider as Non-High-Risk in Application of Annex III.” In Pehlivan, Forgó, and Valcke (eds) (2024), 1140– 1148.
  • Tosoni, Luca, and Samson Y. Esayas. 2024. “Article 81: Union Safeguard Procedure.” In Pehlivan, Forgó, and Valcke (eds) (2024), 1149–1157.
  • Panezi, Argyri. 2024. “Article 14: Human Oversight.” In Pehlivan, Forgó, and Valcke (eds) (2024), 351–371.
  • Parasuraman, Raja, and Dietrich H. Manzey. 2010. “Complacency and Bias in Human Use of Automation: An Attentional Integration.” Human Factors 52, no. 3: 381–410. doi:10.1177/0018720810376055
  • Pehlivan, Ceyhun Necati, Nikolaus Forgó, and Peggy Valcke (eds.). 2024. The EU Artificial Intelligence (AI) Act: A Commentary. Alphen aan den Rijn: Wolters Kluwer. ISBN 978-94-035-3227-1.
  • Riede, Lutz, and Oliver Talhoff. 2024. “Article 25: Responsibilities Along the AI Value Chain.” In Pehlivan, Forgó, and Valcke (eds) (2024), 524–536.
  • Smuha, Nathalie A., and Karen Yeung. 2025. “The European Union's AI Act: Beyond Motherhood and Apple Pie?” In The Cambridge Handbook of the Law, Ethics, Policy and Artificial Intelligence, edited by Nathalie A. Smuha, 228–258. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009367783.015
  • Veale, Michael, and Frederik Zuiderveen Borgesius. 2021. “Demystifying the Draft EU Artificial Intelligence Act.” Computer Law Review International 22 (4): 97–112. doi:10.9785/cri-2021-220402. arXiv:https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.03721
  • Wachter, Sandra, Brent Mittelstadt, and Luciano Floridi. 2017. “Why a Right to Explanation of Automated Decision-Making Does Not Exist in the General Data Protection Regulation.” International Data Privacy Law 7 (2): 76–99. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2903469

Legislation and treaties

Case law

Institutional documents and official guidance

Websites and online materials

  • Microsoft. 2025. “Enterprise AI Services Code of Conduct.” https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/legal/ai-code-of-conduct
  • Oxford English Dictionary. 2025. Entries cited: “assessment (n.), sense 5.a,” doi:10.1093/OED/8740411998 “narrow (adj.), sense 3.a,” doi:10.1093/OED/8863877943 “preparatory (adj.), sense 1,” doi:10.1093/OED/7056784451 “procedure (n.), sense 1.a,” doi:10.1093/OED/3805511077 “task (n.), sense 2.a,” doi:10.1093/OED/8723383921